Dr Yahya Othman
Senior Lecturer
Language and Literacy
Education Academic Group
Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah
Institute of Education
Universiti Brunei Darussalam
Noradinah Hj Jaidi
Lecturer
Language and Literacy
Education Academic Group
Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah
Institute of Education
Universiti Brunei Darussalam
Published in American International Journal of Contemporary Research Vol. 2 No. 8; August 2012 p134-141
Published in American International Journal of Contemporary Research Vol. 2 No. 8; August 2012 p134-141
Abstract
When reading, students often face problems in understanding
a particular text that they have read. The harder the text, the harder it will
be for them to understand the text. They would often use various strategies
that match with what they think the needs of the text that they have read would
be. Therefore, this descriptive study is intended to
identify the use of metacognitive strategies in pre-university students’ reading. A
questionnaire based on the Reading Comprehension Inventory Strategy was used to
collect the data. In order to obtain the research data, a total of
53 pre-university students in Brunei Darussalam were selected as the research
sample. The research findings showed that the respondents often would often use
reading strategies such as making marks, checking, seeking help, and writing a
summary. The practice of using metacognitive strategies among the research
sample when they came across the problem of understanding a text, showed that
they would be more focussed on strategies that involve the use of thinking
skills. The findings also showed the employment of different strategy
preferences in understanding texts.
Key words: metacognitive strategies, reading comprehension,
pre-university student
Reading is a network of learning and it is suitable for the
needs to form an informative society. Reading ability will help students to
improve their knowledge more effectively. In the context of learning in higher
learning institutions, students’ reading process is not only for the purpose of
understanding text literally but also to come up with inferences (Yahya Othman,
2010a). Readers
read for the purpose of understanding the text content. In the context of
understanding, reading is associated with the constructive form, writing, and
involvement, and is based on situation processes. The purpose of reading among
upper secondary students involves the process of reading which requires a lot
of construction or meaning making based on the text that has been read. Readers
have to construct or reconstruct in terms of understanding, which is sometimes
seen from different perspectives.
When referring to the metacognitive
strategies during the reading process, hence for the purpose of understanding
the content of a text, readers have to perform construction in terms of
awareness and control (Kuhn, 2000). Kuhn also stated the purpose of enhancing
understanding among more mature readers as they need to know the function of
remembering and how knowledge can be related to the capacity to remember. It is
also undeniable that the need and control of awareness on text content requires
further analysis.
Metacognition is a concept that refers to
various epistemological processes. Metacognition is defined as cognition about
cognition. It refers to the second level of cognition. Thinking about thinking
refers to thinking, knowledge about knowledge and reflection about actions
(Louca, 2003). If cognition involves
detection, understanding, memory and so on, then metacognition involves
someone's thoughts on detection, understanding, memory and others. Diversity of
cognition related to cognition can be labelled as meta-perception, meta-understanding,
meta-memory, with metacognition remaining as the superordinate term. Apart from
that, metacognitive is related to one’s thinking regarding a particular matter.
The discussions of a person’s way of thinking on the subject of thinking have
started way back since the years of Plato and Aristotle.
Louca (2003) added that if cognition is
associated with perceptions, understanding, remembrance and others, meta
cognition on the other hand involves thoughts about perceptions, understanding,
remembrance and others that a person owned. Various cognition about cognition
can be labelled as metaperception, metaunderstanding and metamemory with
metacognition remains as in the superodinate term.
Reading is a complex process which lay
emphasis on cognitive approaches. Basically, reading needs paradigm changes
from the traditional behaviorism approach towards reading and readers with
vision based on cognitive psychology. For instance, when reading a Malay text,
readers are required to use their cognitive ability in order to understand the
text constructively (Yahya Othman, 2009). Therefore, reading in a broader
context is not only referring to the process of stating word by word about what
is written in the text but also drawing meanings out of the text
The selection of a suitable strategy is
required for those who are engaged in reading more challenging texts. Besides
that, in order to obtain more effective reading effects, matured readers will
always work towards understanding the content of texts intensively by
conducting an analysis on the content whereby the requirements of their
assignments are referred. In the context of learning in higher learning
institutions, students’ reading process is not only for the purpose of
understanding texts literally but it is beyond that. Readers need to explicitly understand and
analyse the content of texts deeply (Yahya Othman, 2010a; Yahya
Othman & Ghazali Mustapha, 2010b).
In the context of the Malay Language
education in Brunei Darussalam, the mastery of reading skill is considered
important. This is because in the Malay Language syllabus, students are
required to master the skill. The content of the syllabus stated that reading
and understanding are important skills for one’s language command. Reading
skill needs to be mastered and placed in the same position as other skills such
as listening, speaking and writing.
Statements of problems
At the secondary level, there are certain
students who are able to read fluently but do not understand the text that they
have read and the meaning that it conveys. Usually, they will read and continue
to read until the last sentence without understanding the text. This condition
continues until a stage where the students do not know and do not realise their
weaknesses. The weaknesses comprise awareness
aspects such as not being able to detect their own reading, reading without any
control and not being aware of what they understand and vice versa.
Besides that, there are students who do not
use appropriate reading strategies when reading certain texts. Consequently,
they are not able to fully understand the text that they have read. In
addition, by just reading once, one definitely could not grasp the meaning that
the author is trying to convey. Students are supposed to know the significance
of using appropriate strategies when reading.
Besides that, the text prepared
by the teacher is beyond the students’ ability and interest to understand. If
the materials that have been prepared are too difficult, the students would
feel disappointed and would not want to continue reading. In contrast, if the
materials are too easy, they might probably feel bored as the materials
provided by the teacher are not challenging enough. Hence, before the teacher
prepares reading materials, it would be better if the teacher could somehow
learn about the students’ reading materials preferences.
Research Questions
For the purpose of obtaining
the answers to the research objectives stated above, the following are the
research questions, which are the key questions to this study.
(i)
What is the metacognitive
strategies that the research sample used when reading?
(ii)
What is the method used by the
research sample if they encounter reading problems?
(iii)
What is the research sample’s
level of preferences related to the reading strategy?
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
This
research used qualitative method. The method is suitable to be used for a
research that intends to make consistent of its process. According to Cresswell
(2005), qualitative research method will help researchers to understand
research problems more deeply.
Population and Sampling
The research population was pre-university from Maktab
Duli Pengiran Muda Al-Muhtadee Billah, Negara Brunei Darussalam. The researcher
selected 53 twelfth year students as the
research sample by simple random sampling since they were a group of mature
students who would use certain strategies when reading and understanding
academic texts.
Research Instrument
In
order to collect data, the researcher developed three sets of instrument
consisting of two sets of comprehension test and a set of Reading Comprehension
Strategy checklist survey.
Reading Text
The
researcher prepared two sets of reading comprehension texts. One of it was a
factual form of text entitled ‘Muzik Sarana Bahasa dan Komunikasi’ by Amir
Husairi Sharif. This text was adapted and modified from Dewan Bahasa magazine
(2008). This text consisted of three pages, 10 paragraphs and 603 words. Another
reading text was from a story entitled ‘Makhluk Asing’ by Nasran Sira Rahim.
The text was taken and adapted from Misteri Dunia magazine (2008). The text
consisted of 3 pages, nine paragraphs and 684 words. The text was selected
because the research sample was used to being exposed to such text type. In
terms of the validity of the text content, the researcher referred to Standard
12 Malay Language teachers to ensure that the content was suitable for the
students’ level.
Questionnaire
The
questionnaire was based on the Reading Comprehension Inventory Strategy
constructed by Yahya Othman (2010a). The researcher, however, made some
modifications in terms of the sentence structures to enhance the understanding
of the research sample. The questionnaire
was divided into three sections, namely, Section A, Section B and Section C.
Section A consisted of a list of reading strategies that the research sample
would use when reading. Section B was a list of practices that the research
sample would use when they faced problems to understand a text. Section C on
the other hand consisted of the research sample’s level of preferences on a few
statements related to reading strategies. The research sample was required to
select their level of preferences through the provided answer options. The selection was based on the Likert scale;
1 for extremely disagree (STS), 2 for disagree (TS), 3 for not sure (TP), 4 for
agree (S), and 5 for extremely agree (SS).
Research Procedure
The
research sample was gathered in a classroom. Before the reading session was
conducted, the researcher provided a briefing for all the students on the
research procedures. They were requested to quietly read two articles that had
been prepared. After the reading session, they were required to complete the
questionnaire.
Data Analysis
The collected data were
analysed using the SPSS software and the findings were stated in mean and
standard deviation forms.
FINDINGS
Strategies
Used by the Research Sample when Reading
There
were 11 options of reading strategies used by the research sample when reading
as listed in the questionnaire (Table 1). The findings showed that the marking
strategy using a highlighter was the most often used strategy by the
respondents (M=4.45, SP=.70). This shows that the practice of using the
highlighter was well-liked and easy to use when reading. Besides that, during
reading, checking was found to be the second most often used strategy by the
research sample (M=4.26; SP=.74). Other reading strategies that were often used
when reading were asking for help strategy (M=4.15; SP=.74), underlining
strategy (M=4.15; SP=.74), writing a quick note strategy (M=4.09; SP=.86) and
defining words in which the meanings are unknown (M=4.04; SP=.88).
Apart
from that, the sample also chose reading strategies such as drawing a mind map
(M=3.83; SP=.94), using experiences to understand a text (M=3.49; SP=.87),
summarising (M=3.26; SP=.96) and constructing questions (M=3.13; SP=.88). The
strategies of leaving the reading (M=2.68; SP=1.22) and glancing through
(M=2.68; SP=1.22) were the least used strategies.
The
findings showed that the strategies used by the current research sample focussed
more on marking activities, checking, seeking help, writing a summary and
providing definitions.
Most
of the strategies were categorised as novice reader
in order to understand the text content. The respondents were seen to give less
focus on strategies that have more cognitive strength such as using mind maps,
summarising and constructing questions. These strategies require more capacity
in terms of reasoning with regards to the table of contents. In a fast reading
context, the sample was not quite inclined to use a strategy such as skimming.
Table 1: Strategies used when reading
Mean
|
Standard
Deviation
|
|
Marking using
highlighter
|
4.45
|
.70
|
Checking
|
4.26
|
.74
|
Asking
teacher’s assistance
|
4.15
|
.72
|
Underline
|
4.15
|
.74
|
Writing short
note
|
4.09
|
.86
|
Provide definitions
for unknown words
|
4.04
|
.88
|
Drawing mind
map
|
3.83
|
.94
|
Using experiences to
understand text content
|
3.49
|
.87
|
Summarising
|
3.26
|
.96
|
Construct
questions regarding the text
|
3.13
|
.88
|
Leave the
reading if it is difficult to be understood
|
2.75
|
1.14
|
Reading in a
glance
|
2.68
|
1.22
|
N=53
Practices
that are carried out when one encounters understanding problems
Readers would tend to face problems
in understanding a text that they have read. Various strategies can be utilised
to overcome problems that one faces. In this study, from the questionnaire, 12
practices that were often employed by readers when they encountered
understanding problems, are listed in Table 2.
The findings showed that the
respondents extremely agreed to use the strategy of underlining when reading
(M=4.32; SP=.83). The respondents also extremely agreed to read the text more
than once (M=4.26; SP=.86) when facing understanding problems. Other practices
that were used by the respondents included finding important information in
every text (M=4.06; SP=.66), linking important contents to understand the text
(M=4.04; SP=.65) and writing notes (M=4.00; SP.96). On the other hand, at the
moderate level, among the strategies that were often used by the research sample
were – trying to imagine the description of the text in mind in order to ease
memory (M=3.96; SP=.90), paying attention to important information compared to
minor ones (M=3.87; .96), and when reading, revising questions that have been constructed
based on the text content (M=3.57; SP=.57).
Other practices that were prevalent
among the research sample at the moderate level were applying experiences to
understand the text (M=3.43; SP=.84) and using subject knowledge to construct
relevant questions related to the text (M=3.40; SP=.93). Whereas the strategy that
was least applied by the research sample was skimming a text quickly before
reading (M= 2.96; SP=1.06).
Based on the findings, strategies
that were often employed by the respondents focussed more on those with
emerging characteristics such as underlining when reading and reading more than
once. Other practices such as looking for important facts, linking important
points and writing notes were also considered as strategies that highlighted
more on emphasizing content confirmation that could be found in the text. Other
than that, there were practices that involved high cognitive ability such as
making presumptions, mapping out comparison, and monitoring based on questions
that have been constructed. For reading by skimming, the research sample
received a few practice sessions of applying it as a key strategy in reading
comprehension.
Table 2: Practices when one encounters
understanding problems
Mean
|
Standard
Deviation
|
|
Underline when reading to
remember
|
4.32
|
.83
|
Reading the
text more than once
|
4.26
|
.86
|
Search for
important information in each text
|
4.06
|
.66
|
Linking
important points to understand a text
|
4.04
|
.65
|
I write down
notes while reading
|
4.00
|
.96
|
Try to imagine
description of text in mind to ease
memory
|
3.96
|
.90
|
Pay attention
to important information compared to
minor ones
|
3.87
|
.96
|
If the
information is not clear, I will make assumptions
|
3.68
|
1.00
|
I will revise
the questions that I construct according to the content of the text while
reading
|
3.57
|
.82
|
Using
experiences to understand a text
|
3.43
|
.84
|
Using the
knowledge of a particular subject to construct
questions
related to the text
|
3.40
|
.93
|
Skim a text
quickly before reading
|
2.96
|
1.06
|
N=53
Respondents’ Level of Preference
on Reading Strategies
Strategy 1: If students
do not understand the meaning of a word
Based on the findings (Table 3), the proposed reading
strategies comprised using surrounding words/as if the meanings are the same to
find out the meaning (M=4.17; SP=.80), using outside resources such as
referring to a dictionary or experts (M=4.15; SP=.99), leaving the word for a
while and waiting for further explanation (M=3.34; SP=1.22), and pronouncing
the word (M=3.11; SP= 1.10). The findings showed that the respondents used the
skill of using words that have the same meaning to know the meaning of those
difficult words besides referring to a dictionary or asking those who know
better. In addition, the respondents were uncertain whether leaving difficult
words and pronouncing those words could help to solve the problems of finding
the meaning of difficult words. Therefore, based on the findings, when dealing
with problems of not knowing the meaning of words that had been read and not
knowing the significance of the words, the research sample agreed to use words
with analogous meaning and suitable references.
Table 3: Strategy proposal when
not understanding the meaning of a word
Mean
|
Standard deviation
|
|
Use
surrounding words/ as if with the same meaning
to
find out the meaning of the word.
|
4.17
|
.80
|
To
use outside resources such as the dictionary or experts
|
4.15
|
.98
|
Leave
the word for a while and wait for further explanation
|
3.34
|
1.22
|
To pronounce the word
|
3.11
|
1.10
|
Strategy 2: If students do not understand the meaning of the overall
sentence
Based on the research
findings (Table 4), respondents who did not understand the meaning of the
overall sentence stated that they agreed to choose the strategy of reading the
sentence again (M=4.64; SP=.59). For the strategy of thinking of a different sentence
(M=3.38; SP=1.02) and reading aloud all the difficult words (1.22), the
respondents stated that they were uncertain of the suitability of the proposal.
Whereas for the suggestion of leaving the whole sentence (M=2.15; SP=1.11), the
sample stated that they did not agree to it. As such, based on the findings, if
the research sample did not understand the whole sentence that they had read
then they should read the sentence where the meaning was obscured.
Table 4: If students do not understand the meaning
of the overall sentence
Mean
|
Standard
Deviation
|
|
Read the sentence again
|
4.64
|
.59
|
Think of a different sentence
|
3.38
|
1.02
|
Read out loud all difficult words
|
3.17
|
1.22
|
Leave the whole sentence
|
2.15
|
1.11
|
Strategy 3: Plan to increase reading comprehension
Based on the findings
(Table 5), the research sample stated uncertainty with the proposal given;
thinking about what is known (M=3.87; SP=.85), thinking of the purpose of
reading (M=3.84; SP=.80), reading quickly (M=3.45; SP=1.01) and having no
specific planning (M=3.38; SP=1.13). Hence, readers should think about matters
that are related to the subject that they are reading and think of the purpose
of reading to enhance the mastery of reading comprehension.
Table 5: Plan to increase reading comprehension
Mean
|
Standard
Deviation
|
|
To think of what is known
|
3.87
|
.85
|
To think of the purpose of reading
|
3.83
|
.80
|
Read quickly
|
3.45
|
1.01
|
No specific planning
|
3.38
|
1.13
|
Strategy
4: In dealing with a text that is confusing compared to simply skipping the
reading activity.
Based on the findings (Table 6),
the research sample agreed to continue reading; continue reading and repeat
(M=4.32; SP=.87) and continue reading until they complete the text (M=4.23;
SP=.89). Besides that, the mean for the respondents who chose the strategy of
skipping confusing parts is 2.55 with SD=1.03. Therefore, continue reading
strategy is considered suitable when dealing with confusing texts compared to
leaving the reading activity.
Table 6: Dealing with confusing texts
Mean
|
Standard
Deviation
|
|
Continue reading and repeat
|
4.32
|
.87
|
Continue reading until complete
|
4.23
|
.89
|
Skip the particular part
|
2.55
|
1.03
|
Strategy 5: Inability in understanding a particular sentence.
Based on the findings (Table 7), the
respondents stated their uncertainty with the suggested strategy when dealing
with the situation of not understanding certain sentences when reading. Among
the proposed strategy included taking time to find the meaning (M=3.70;
SP=1.06) and having perhaps two similar sentences (m=3.58; SP=.84). In
addition, for the strategy proposal of being unable to channel ideas (M=3.42;
SP=.84) and unable to relate (M=3.40 ; SP=.69), the respondents also stated
that they were uncertain. Therefore, the findings showed that the research
sample was not confident with the suggestions given.
Table 7: Inability in understanding a sentence in reading
Mean
|
Standard
Deviation
|
|
Take time to find the meaning
|
3.70
|
1.06
|
Have perhaps two same sentences
|
3.58
|
.84
|
Unable to channel ideas
|
3.42
|
.84
|
Uanble to relate
|
3.40
|
.68
|
SUMMARY
AND DISCUSSION
Strategies
used in reading
The findings showed that the strategies
used by the research sample when reading focussed more on marking activities,
checking, seeking help, writing summaries and providing definitions. Most of
the strategies are with beginning characteristic in order to understand the
text content. Respondents were seen to give less attention to strategies that are
based on cognitive strengths such as using mind maps, summarising, and
constructing questions. These strategies need more capacity in terms of
reasoning of the table of contents that they have read. On the other hand, the
research sample was not quite inclined in using a strategy such as skimming in
fast-reading contexts.
The use of strategies, which are considered
suitable for readers relies heavily on some factors. One of the factors is the
readability level of a text. A text that is quite difficult to be understood
often distracts the readers’ understanding process. They have to focus more on
several other aspects, which involve the present knowledge of the readers on
the text that is being read, vocabulary and sentence structures present in the
text. Hence, for the factual text used by the research sample, it was easier
for them to use strategies such as marking, checking, asking for assistance,
formulating and defining. These strategies were considered to be easier and were
able to help the respondents to refer to the text if they wanted to obtain information.
Meanwhile, the research
sample used less of the strategies that involved the notion of cognition. There
were a small number of respondents who agreed to use strategies that involved
cognitive applications such as mind mapping, formulating and constructing
questions. For students who were studying at the pre-university level, they were
actually exposed to effective reading strategies especially the ones that
involve higher level thinking instrumentation. The problems that cause them to
be in such a condition are influenced by text factor that is used and students'
capability to make analyses and exploration on the text content that is used.
In this matter, readers can also acquire the meaning of the text reflectively
by using past knowledge, interests and purpose of reading (McKeowen &
Gentilucci, 2007). In the context of this study, the application of the mental
model involves meaning representation from the text that has been read. The
building of this model is associated with the readers’ capability in assisting
knowledge structures that integrate materials verbally and visually. When
reading, readers will use the mental model constructively so that they can
relate text structures with the text contents (Wooley, 2010). Therefore, readers
who are more mature would use the mental model often to obtain better
understanding of the text when reading.
Strategies that are used when one comes across
reading problems
Based on the findings, the research sample was often seen to focus on
strategies such as underlining when reading and reading more than once. Other
different practices such as looking for important points, linking important
points and writing notes were also considered as strategies that emphasize more
on the content confirmation found in the text. As for practices that involve
high cognitive ability such as making presumptions, mapping out comparison and
monitoring based on the constructed questions. For reading practice by
skimming, the research sample was still seen to practise less of skimming, as a
key strategy during reading comprehension.
As discussed earlier, the strategies that were often used by the research
sample when reading were underlining and reading more than once. This strategy
can be associated with the basis of getting information contained in the text.
Hence as mentioned by Wooley (2010), the mastery of the strategies used is
frequently associated with the students' capability in using any of the
strategies that are deemed appropriate. If they feel the existence of the need
to use certain strategies hence the need will encourage them to do so. The
research sample will not use strategies that are considered not related to the
text and are difficult to be carried out. For example reading with skimming
strategy is not being used so often because the research sample can read easy texts.
The research sample’s level of preferences on the
proposed reading strategies
The respondents’ preferencess are listed based on the items developed. Preferences
is listed based on the highest mean achieved of a problem that has been
proposed.
Among the research sample’s preferencess are with regards to dealing with
problems of not knowing the meaning of the words read. The sample agreed to use
words that are analogous in terms of the meaning and make suitable references.
The sample also seemed to use the strategy of continuing reading that is
considered suitable when dealing with confusing texts compared to simply
leaving the reading activity.
If
the readers do not understand the overall sentence that they read, they should
read the sentence with a complex meaning. Readers should think of issues
related to the subject that they are reading and also the purpose of reading to
enhance the mastery of reading comprehension. The findings also pointed out
that the research sample was not confident with the proposal given. The
strategy of continuing reading is considered suitable when dealing with
confusing texts compared to simply leaving the reading activity.
SUGGESTIONS AND CONCLUSION
Based on the findings and analysis of the study,
some suggestions can be made to enhance the quality of student’s understanding.
Students as readers are a very important factor to be given attention as during
schooling they need to go through the reading process for the purpose of gaining knowledge and information. Hence the
mastery of a suitable reading strategy to be used is very much influenced by
the student's capability. The first element that needs to be owned by students
is hindsight or background knowledge. For the purpose of owning that
experience, the teacher or lecturer needs to know the way information is
processed through the information
processing model. This model explains how information is processed and kept
The research
sample’s level of preferences is related to the reading strategies that have
been suggested. Classroom discussion is
also able to give impact on reading understanding by providing students with
the opportunity to analyse, make reflection and think critically. The given
space can help students to read intensively by making an organised preparation
before discussing. Besides that, the use of lesson media is also able to
enhance students’ understanding on text that they read. This can be done by
using technology application for example by using video to further augment understanding
of the issue that has been discussed in the text that is read. Through this
method, readers can expose with the context that exists in the text more
constructively and effectively (Lei et al., 2010).
Besides the strategies
discussed above, Lei et al., (2010)
also suggested a few strategies that are considered to be suitable to be
conducted during comprehension learning such as the use of SQ3R strategy, peer
group teaching, encoding and flexibility learning.
The readers are
also able to increase their quality of understanding by using strategy which
suits their abilities (Yahya Othman, 2009). The choice of strategy will help
readers to plan and evaluate the progress of their reading. Even though the
strategies which involve metacognitive are seen to be more suitable for matured
readers, however exposure at the lower level can be done to enable students to
explore the content of the texts more effectively.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Creswell, J. W.
(2005). Educational research (2nd
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Kuhn, D. (2000).
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K. (2010). Strategies for
improving reading comprehension
among college students, Reading
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Louca, E. P.(2003). The concept and instruction of metacognition,
Teacher Development, 7(1), 9-30
McKeowen, R.
G., & Gentilucci, J. L. (2007). Think-Aloud Strategy: Metacognitive
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(2010a). Application of metacognition
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